29 May AD 1453
On this day the last vestiges of the unbroken Roman Empire, in
existence for some two thousand years, fell under the onslaught of the
Ottoman Turks. The Great City, Constantinople, was captured by Sultan
Mehmet II.
The assault began after midnight, into the 29th of May 1453. Wave
after wave the attackers charged. Battle cries, accompanied by the
sound of drums, trumpets and fifes, filled the air. The bells of the
city churches began ringing frantically. Orders, screams and the sound
of trumpets shattered the night. First came the irregulars, an
unreliable, multinational crowd of Christians and Moslems, who were
attracted by the opportunity of enriching themselves by looting the
great city, the last capital of the Roman Empire. They attacked
throughout the line of fortifications and they were massacred by the
tough professionals, who were fighting under the orders of
Giustiniani. The battle lasted two hours and the irregulars withdrew
in disorder, leaving behind an unknown number of dead and wounded.
Next came the Anatolian troops of Ishak Pasha. They tried to storm the
stockades. They fought tenaciously, even desperately trying to break
through the compact ranks of the defenders. The narrow area in which
fighting went on helped the defenders. The could hack left and right
with their maces and swords and shoot missiles onto the mass of
attackers without having to aim. A group of attackers crashed through
a gap and for a moment it seemed that they could enter the city. The
were assaulted by the Emperor and his men and were soon slain. This
second attack also failed.
But now came the Janissaries, disciplined, professional, ruthless
warriors, superbly trained, ready to die for their master, the Sultan.
They assaulted the now exhausted defenders, they were pushing their
way over bodies of dead and dying Moslem and Christian soldiers. With
tremendous effort the Greek and Italian fighters were hitting back and
continued repulsing the enemy. Then a group of enemy soldiers
unexpectedly entered the city from a small sally-port called
Kerkoporta, on the wall of Blachernae, where this wall joined the
triple wall. Fighting broke near the small gate with the defenders
trying to eliminate the intruders.
It was almost day now, the first light, before sunrise, when a shot
fired from a calverin hit Giustiniani. The shot pierced his
breastplate and he fell on the ground. Shaken by his wound and
physically exhausted, his fighting spirit collapsed. Despite the pleas
of the Emperor, who was fighting nearby, not to leave his post, the
Genoese commander ordered his men to take him out of the battle-field.
A Gate in the inner wall was opened for the group of Genoese soldiers,
who were carrying their wounded commander, to come into the city. The
soldiers who were fighting near the area saw the Gate open, their
comrades carrying their leader crossing into the city, and they though
that the defence line had been broken. They all rushed through the
Gate leaving the Emperor and the Greek fighters alone between the two
walls. This sudden movement did not escape the attention of the
Ottoman commanders. Frantic orders were issued to the troops to
concentrate their attack on the weakened position. Thousands rushed to
the area. The stockade was broken. The Greeks were now squeezed by
crowds of Janissaries between the stockade and the wall. More
Janissaries came in and many reached the inner wall.
Meanwhile more were pouring in through the Kerkoporta, where the
defenders had not been able to eliminate the first intruders. Soon the
first enemy flags were seen on the walls. The Emperor and his
commanders were trying frantically to rally their troops and push back
the enemy. It was too late. Waves of Janissaries, followed by other
regular units of the Ottoman army, were crashing throught the open
Gates, mixed with fleeing and slaughtered Christian soldiers. Then the
Emperor, realizing that everything was lost, removed his Imperial
insignia, and followed by his cousin Theophilus Palaeologus, the
Castilian Don Francisco of Toledo, and John Dalmatus, all four holding
their swords, charged into the sea of the enemy soldiers, hitting left
and right in a final act of defiance. They were never seen again.
Now thousands of Ottoman soldiers were pouring into the city. One
after the other the city Gates were opened. The Ottoman flags began
appearing on the walls, on the towers, on the Palace at Blachernae.
Civilians in panic were rushing to the churches. Others locked
themselves in their homes, some continued fighting in the streets,
crowds of Greeks and foreigners were rushing towards the port area.
The allied ships were still there and began collecting refugees. The
Cretan soldiers and sailors, manning three towers near the entrance of
the Golden Horn, were still fighting and had no intention of
surrendering. At the end, the Ottoman commanders had to agree to a
truce and let them sail away, carrying their arms.
The excesses which followed, druing the early hours of the Ottoman
victory, are described in detail by eyewitnesses. They were, and
unfortunately still are, a common practice, almost a ritual, among all
armies capturing enemy strongholds and territory after a prolonged and
violent struggle. Thus, bands of soldiers began now looting. Doors
were broken, private homes were looted, their tenants were massacred.
Shops in the city markets were looted. Monasteries and Convents were
broken in. Their tenants were killed, nuns were raped, many, to avoid
dishonor, killed themselves. Killing, raping, looting, burning,
enslaving, went on and on according to tradition. The troops had to
satisfy themselves. The great doors of Saint Sophia were forced open,
and crowds of angry soldiers came in and fell upon the unfortunate
worshippers. Pillaging and killing in the holy place went on for
hours. Similar was the fate of worshippers in most churches in the
city. Everything that could be taken from the splendid buildings was
taken by the new masters of the Imperial capital. Icons were
destroyed, precious manuscripts were lost forever. Thousands of
civilians were enslaved, soldiers fought over young boys and young
women. Death and enslavement did not distinguish among social classes.
Nobles and peasants were treated with equal ruthlessness.
In some distant neighborhoods, especially near the sea walls in the
sea of Marmora, such as Psamathia, but also in the Golden Horn at
Phanar and Petrion, where local fishermen opened the Gates, while the
enemy soldiers were pouring into the city from the land Gates, local
magistrates negotiated successfully their surrender to Hamza Bey's
officers. Their act saved the lives of their fellow citizens.
Furthermore their churches were not desecrated. Meanwhile, the crews
of the Ottoman fleet abandoned their ships to rush into the city. They
were worried that the land army was going to take everything. The
collapse of discipline gave the Christian ships time to sail out of
the Golden Horn. Venetian, Genoese and Greek ships, loaded with
refugees, some of them having reached the ships swimming from the
city, sailed away to freedom. On one of the Genoese vessels was
Giustiniani. He was taken from the boat at Chios where he died, from
his wound, a few days later.
The Sultan, with his top commanders and his guard of Janissaries,
entered the city in the afternoon of the first day of occupation.
Constantinople was finally his and he intended to make it the capital
of his mighty Empire. He toured the ruined city. He visited Saint
Sophia which he ordered to be turned into a mosque. He also ordered an
end to the killing. What he saw was desolation, destruction, death in
the streets, ruins, desecrated churches. It was too much. It is said
that, as he rode through the streets of the former capital of the
Christian Roman Empire, the city of Constantine, moved to tears he
murmured: "What a city we have given over to plunder and destruction" .
Give us back our city! We built it! I don't call you liars for calling roman baths