p.s. eg bryr meg ikkje

Ion implantation is a materials engineering process by which ions of a material can be implanted into another solid, thereby changing the physical properties of the solid. Ion implantation is used in semiconductor device fabrication and in metal finishing, as well as various applications in materials science research. The ions introduce both a chemical change in the target, in that they can be a different element than the target, and a structural change, in that the crystal structure of the target can be damaged or even destroyed.
Ion implantation setup with mass separator
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Ion implantation setup with mass separator

Ion implantation equipment typically consists of an ion source, where ions of the desired element are produced, an accelerator, where the ions are electrostatically accelerated to a high energy, and a target chamber, where the ions impinge on a target, which is the material to be implanted. Each ion is typically a single atom, and thus the actual amount of material implanted in the target is the integral over time of the ion current. This amount is called the dose. The currents supplied by implanters are typically small (microamperes), and thus the dose which can be implanted in a reasonable amount of time is small. Thus, ion implantation finds application in cases where the amount of chemical change required is small.

Typical ion energies are in the range of 10 to 500 keV (1,600 to 80,000 aJ). Energies in the range 1 to 10 keV (160 to 1,600 aJ) can be used, but result in a penetration of only a few nanometers or less. Energies lower than this result in very little damage to the target, and fall under the designation ion beam deposition. Higher energies can also be used: accelerators capable of 5 MeV (800,000 aJ) are common. However, there is often great structural damage to the target, and because the depth distribution is broad, the net composition change at any point in the target will be small.

The energy of the ions, as well as the ion species and the composition of the target determine the depth of penetration of the ions in the solid: A monoenergetic ion beam will generally have a broad depth distribution. The average penetration depth is called the range of the ions. Under typical circumstances ion ranges will be between 10 nanometers and 1 micrometer. Thus, ion implantation is especially useful in cases where the chemical or structural change is desired to be near the surface of the target. Ions gradually lose their energy as they travel through the solid, both from occasional collisions with target atoms (which cause abrupt energy transfers) and from a mild drag from overlap of electron orbitals, which is a continuous process. The loss of ion energy in the target is called stopping.

Jeg trodde faktisk norske NG-brukere var mer intelligente enn gjennomsnittet, men nei da.

De paralympiske vinterleker 2006 var de niende paralympiske vinterlekene, og ble avholdt 10.–19. mars 2006 i Torino i Italia. Dette var første gang Italia var vert for de paralympiske vinterlekene; de var vert for de første sommerlekene i Roma i 1960.

Torino ble valgt til arrangørby i 1999 i konkurranse med Sion i Sveits, med 52 mot 36 stemmer. Fire andre kandidatbyer hadde gått ut tidligere i prosessen: Helsingfors i Finland, Poprad-Tatry i Slovakia, Zakopane i Polen og Klagenfurt i Østerrike.

Det ble konkurrert i fem disipliner av fire idretter. Som i alle andre paralympiske leker ble medaljer utdelt for hver handikappklassifikasjon innen hver idrett (totalt 58 gullmedaljer ble utdelt).

Konkurransene i alpin skiidrett, langrenn og skiskyting ble holdt i Sestriere og Cesana San Sicario, mens kjelkehockey og rullestolcurling ble holdt i Torino og Pinerolo. Utøverne bodde i utøverlandsbyer i Torino og Sestriere.

Spamming is the abuse of any electronic communications medium to send unsolicited messages in bulk. While its definition usually extends to any unsolicited bulk electronic communication, some exclude from the definition of the term "spam" messages considered by the receiver (or even just the sender) to be targeted, non-commercial, or wanted. In the popular eye, the most common form of spam is that delivered in e-mail as a form of commercial advertising. However, over the short history of electronic media, people have spammed for many purposes other than the commercial, and in many media other than e-mail. Spammers have developed a variety of spamming techniques, which vary by media: e-mail spam, instant messaging spam, Usenet newsgroup spam, Web search engines spam, weblogs spam, and mobile phone messaging spam.


A KMail folder full of spam emails collected over a few days.Spamming is economically viable because advertisers have effectively no operating costs beyond the management of their mailing lists. Because the barrier to entry is so low, the volume of unsolicited mail has produced other costs which are borne by the public (in terms of lost productivity and fraud) and by Internet service providers, which must add extra capacity to cope with the deluge. Spamming is widely reviled, and has been the subject of legislation in a number of jurisdictions.